The LIVES and REMARKABLE ACHIEVEMENTS Of the
OPERATIVE FREE MASONS
FROM 3000 BCE UNTIL THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE GRAND LODGE OF SCOTLAND IN 1736
by Donald H B Falconer
1. Ancient Egypt
Of all the work carried out by the operative free masons in ancient times,
the most extensive still in existence are structures from the Egyptian
Kingdoms. Moreover, it is probable that more people are aware of the
Egyptian temples, pyramids, underground tombs and other structures than of
any other ancient works. The earliest known Egyptian structures were the
huge brick mastaba tombs of the kings of the Archaic Period from about 3100
BCE to about 2700 BCE. These were followed by the Stepped Pyramid designed
by the royal architect Imhotep and built for King Zoser at Saqqara in about
2650 BCE. Imhotep is usually credited with the invention of authentic stone
masonry. From the detailed archaeological investigations that have been
carried out over the last decade or more on the Giza plateau, on the west
bank of the Nile River in the vicinity of Cairo, we are gaining a new
insight into the lives and working conditions of those who constructed the
three great pyramids of Khufu (Cheops), Khafra (Chephren) and Menkaura
(Mycerinus), from about 2500 BCE to 2400 BCE during the Old Kingdom. We now
know that the workers were not slaves as usually depicted in extravaganza
films.
On the contrary they were well trained craftsmen, assembled as highly
efficient construction teams under the leadership of skilled operative free
masons, the accuracy of whose work leaves us in no doubt as to their
knowledge and technical ability. The immensity of the work and the speed
with which it must have been carried out would be difficult to equal with
modern technology and equipment. The workers lived in construction villages
adjacent to the work sites - not makeshift dwellings, but permanent stone
houses then at least the equivalent of those used on construction sites
nowadays. Food, hygiene and medical attention were good and there is
evidence that many lived and worked on the same site for many years. There
is no evidence of excessive accident or death rates as a result of the
working conditions, but there is evidence that skilled medical operations
were carried out to overcome the effects of injuries. As yet no records are
available that provide specific details of the hours worked in a day or of
the meal and rest breaks taken, but nothing has been found that would
suggest the workers were driven excessively. Indeed, the evidence strongly
suggests that the workers were not driven as brutally as they were during
the Classical Era and the Dark Ages of Europe and Britain.
2. Classical Times
The Greek and Roman architecture of the Classical Era is well known. The
Greeks are renowned for their several orders of architecture, of which the
Ionic, Doric and Corinthian are in the forefront. The Parthenon on the
Acropolis in Athens is one of the most renowned structures in the world and
reflects the ultimate in Greek architecture. It was completed in 432 BCE
after fifty years under construction. In Rome the Colosseum was constructed
in eight years between 72 CE and 80 CE and the Pantheon, where Raphael was
buried, was constructed in four years between 120 CE and 124 CE. They
probably are the most famous Roman structures of Classical Times. These
great structures of the Classical Era carried on the traditions established
in Egypt, but except for the introduction of pozzolanic concrete by the
Romans they did little to advance construction methods. Even the true
catenary arch, which was used so effectively by the Romans and is often
attributed to them, had been used by the Sumerians in the tombs of the Royal
Cemetery at Ur, constructed between 2700 BCE and 2370 BCE.
The greatest advances in design and construction during the Classical Era
were related to architectural finesse. Among the most spectacular examples
of the Classical Era are the temples of Baalbek in Lebanon that were
constructed on a tel that had been a sacred precinct since ancient times and
was converted into a sanctuary in about 1200 BCE. Work on the Roman temples
was commenced in about 60 CE and continued progressively on four temples for
almost two hundred years. The Temple of Bacchus, begun in about 150 CE and
completed in about 200 CE, is of incredible beauty and is better preserved
than any other Roman temple of its size. The Temple of Jupiter is the
largest, completed in about 70 CE. It incorporates the largest foundation
stones ever used in masonry construction, up to 20 metres long and 4 metres
square in cross-section and each weighing up to 800 tonnes. The Temples of
Jupiter and Bacchus also incorporate 104 monolithic pink granite columns
brought from Aswan in southern Egypt, with shafts up to 16.6 metres high and
2 metres in diameter, each weighing up to 135 tonnes. Another important
construction aspect of Baalbek was the use of multiple pulleys attached to
Lewis cramps, with each cramp supporting up to 5 tonnes.
3. Medieval Construction in Britain
Egypt is renowned for its massive, seemingly indestructible pyramids and for
its remarkable underground tombs. Although the greatest buildings erected
during the Classical Era also are very substantial structures, it is their
architectural finesse that typifies their design. Britain is noted for its
castles, monasteries and cathedrals, of which some like the York Minster
have been in continuous use for almost a thousand years. Of those
structures, as in France, it is the height and decoration of the buttressed
Gothic style cathedrals, coupled with the slenderness of their design, which
highlights the ultimate achievements of the medieval operative free masons
in Britain and on the continent of Europe. It is generally acknowledged that
the available minutes and other written records of operative and speculative
lodges in Scotland go much further back in history than those of England.
Nevertheless there is ample circumstantial evidence to show that the working
conditions, hours of work and methods used were generally similar in the two
kingdoms. For this reason it will be of advantage to refer to relevant
events chronologically in relation to Britain as a whole rather than in
relation to England and Scotland separately. In this respect it should be
noted that most of the references given in relation to English operative
free masonry are based on evidence that is primarily anecdotal, whereas
those relating to Scottish operative free masonry are mostly based on
recorded evidence.
An appropriate starting point for operative free masonry in Britain is the
report of the historian Rebold that Charles Martel (688-741), Charles the
Hammer of France, "at the request of the Anglo-Saxon kings, he sent workmen
and masters into England". The medieval operative free masons in England
regarded Charles Martel as one of their patrons and included him in their
Traditional History, giving an allegorical account of the establishment of
the craft in England and the fixing of good rates of pay at a penny a day.
Later the chief steward of St Albans, the successor to the ancient
Roman-British town of Verulamium, is said to have cherished the masons for
their good work, on which account he obtained a charter from the king and
his counsel and named the masons as an Assembly, giving them charges and
doubling their wages to two pence a day. The town of St Albans is named
after the first Christian martyr in Britain, a Roman soldier Albanus, who
the Venerable Bede and some earlier writers say was scourged and beheaded in
303 for having given refuge to St Amphibalus, the priest who had converted
him to Christianity.
Another legend says that Gordianus, the Roman emperor in 238, sent many
architects into England where they constituted many lodges and instructed
the craftsmen in the true principles of freemasonry. It also says that when
Carausius was emperor in Britain from 287 he loved the craft and appointed
Albanus as the Grand Master of Masons who employed the fraternity in
building the palace at Verulamium. Despite the obvious discrepancies in the
dates mentioned, it has been established that architecture and the craft
were first encouraged in England during the third century and that the
earliest operative free masons came from Europe. Reverting to the
Traditional History of English operative free masons, it concludes with the
legend of an Assembly held at York in 926 during the reign of King
Athelstan, whose younger half-brother Edwin is often called his son. It is
reputed that Edwin had learnt geometry and the mason's craft and prevailed
upon the king to issue a Charter for the free masons and a Commission for
them to hold an annual Assembly. Although no record of the Assembly has been
found, a tradition handed down for many centuries usually has some basis in
fact. In any event it is known that the continuing association of York with
free masonry began with the conversion to Christianity of the Northumbrian
king, Prince Edwin, by his Kentish wife. He was baptised on Easter Day 627
by the first Bishop of York, Paulinus, in a wooden chapel on the site of the
present Minster.
The friendship between France and Scotland, the "Auld Alliance", began in
1134 during the reign of David I of Scotland and a note on its influence is
relevant. In 1294 Philip IV of France seized Gascony, which the British king
Edward I ruled under the title of Duke of Aquitaine. Edward called on John
Balliol, king of Scotland, to provide England with military and financial
assistance to expel the French from Aquitaine. With the support of a council
of twelve Scottish notables assembled at Scone in July 1295, Balliol
rejected Edward's demands and expelled all English estate holders from
Scotland. Balliol then resumed the negotiations for a formal alliance with
France, discontinued in 1166 during the reign of "The Lion", William I, King
of Scots, as a result of which the two governments signed a treaty in
October 1295. One of the earliest initiatives arising from the friendship
between France and Scotland was the involvement of the Travelling Masons of
France in the design and construction of the Abbey of Kilwinning, which was
founded by the Constable of Scotland, Richard de Morville, in about 1150 on
the site of a church built in the sixth century by St Wynin, an Irish monk.
Richard de Morville is reputed to have founded Dryburgh Abbey in the same
year on the site of the sixth century sanctuary of St Modan. The French
Travelling Masons introduced the lifting device into Scotland they called
the leveor, which the Scottish operative free masons called the lewis,
probably an adaptation of the Latin word leuis meaning to levitate, with
which the master masons would almost certainly have known from their need to
hold discussions in Latin with the clergy.
Some researchers are of the opinion that the increase in wages attributed to
Albanus in the Traditional History was the increase that came into effect
after the bubonic plague reached England in 1348. As a result of the
unprecedented demand for labour in the aftermath of the Black Death, a
Statute of Labourers was enacted in England in 1350 to regulate wages and
prevent extortionate pricing, but no reference was made to working
conditions or to the required hours of work. In this respect the Statute of
Labourers differs significantly from the earliest Charters of Incorporation
and related Trade Regulations promulgated in Scotland. The Statute of
Labourers fixed the wages of a master freestone mason at four pence per day
and of other masons at three pence per day. However there is some evidence
supporting the assertion in the Traditional History that wages had been
fixed at two pence per day much earlier than when the increases were
prescribed in the Statute of Labourers. For example, the earliest of the
Westminster Fabric Rolls, that of 1253, records the average wage for masons
as one shilling and ten pence per week, whilst that of 1271 records that an
expert master mason received two shillings and six pence per week.
In England the majority of the operative lodges worked under the immediate
control of a religious establishment, such as a cathedral, often for periods
extending over several generations of their work forces. For example, work
on the York Minster was carried out progressively for about 250 years. The
lodges also were under the guardianship of craft guilds, originally in the
form of religious fraternities organised to protect the interests of skilled
workers in the various trades. In Scotland there were many more operative
lodges, but they were much smaller and more mobile than their English
counterparts. The mason trade in Scotland originally revolved around
individual lodges working independently, although the many territorial
lodges were gradually organised under the supervision of head lodges that
were not always in large towns. The Wars of Independence disrupted Scotland
from 1286 to 1371, causing extreme poverty and forcing the Mason Guilds to
amalgamate with the organisations of other crafts, but without destroying
their continuity. It would be appropriate to mention here that there is no
record of Scottish operative lodges generally having a Traditional History
similar to that of their English counterparts, although in later times some
Scottish lodges working near or over the border with England adopted the
English version. In Scotland the operative free masons had the "Mason Word"
which they guarded jealously.
4. Seals of Cause
After the Wars of Independence and despite the continuing efforts of the
English Parliament to suppress all travelling bands of craftsmen, lodges of
freemasons in Scotland gradually rebuilt their own organisation, which
gained in power as the Merchant Guilds declined. The Masons and Wrights of
Edinburgh obtained a "Charter of Incorporation of Freemen-Masons and Wrights
of Edinburgh" from the Burgh in 1475, called a Seal of Cause, when Trade
Regulations also were promulgated. This Seal of Cause probably is better
known than most, even though it was not the first occasion when laws were
enacted for the governance of the Craft in Scotland. There were at least six
Seals of Cause similar to that of Edinburgh granted in various localities of
Scotland by the end of the seventeenth century. The Seals of Cause and their
associated Trade Regulations covered all relevant aspects of the Craft's
activities. For example, one of the stipulations was that apprentices must
serve a term of seven years, after which they were required to be examined
by four "searchers" and found proficient before being admitted to membership
of the craft and entered in the books.
An earlier enactment of importance was made in Dundee. When David, the Earl
of Huntingdon, returned from the Crusades he established a residence in
Dundee and founded the Abbey of Lindores in 1178, which he presented to a
church dedicated to the Virgin, "Our Lady". In 1248 a granddaughter of the
Earl founded a nunnery in Dundee and then in succession a residence for the
Red Friars, a residence for the Black Friars, a nunnery for the Grey Sisters
and finally a cloister for the Sisters of Magdalene. Thus for many years
Dundee was an important centre of activity for operative free masons, who
formed a lodge under the name of "Our Lady". It is not known when the lodge
actually came into existence, but it is recognised as the earliest
authenticated instance in Scotland of a lodge dedicated to a patron saint.
Of importance in the present context is that the Town Council of Dundee
enacted laws for the governance of the craft from 1424 to 1457 and the lodge
became the recognised local authority for the standard of workmanship. For
example, a building agreement entered into in Dundee in 1536 stipulated that
the work must be carried out according to the "auld use and consuetude of
Our Lady Luge of Dundee . . ."
Contemporary written records of Our Lady Lodge of Dundee show that in that
period in Scotland work in summer commenced at 5:00 am, paused for breakfast
at 8:30 am and recommenced at 9:00 am. Work then continued until a longer
break was taken for the main meal, called dinner, at 11:30 am. After dinner
work resumed at 1:00 pm, paused for lunch at 4:00 pm, recommenced at 4:30 pm
and finished at 7:00 pm. Thus a total of eleven and one half hours per day
were worked during the summer. However, during the winter when days were
short, work continued from daylight to dark without any break for food.
There is no reference to any pause for refreshment, so presumably if a drink
was required during winter it had to be taken without a break. All of the
available evidence indicates that the hours of work in Scotland were similar
to those then being worked in England.
5. The Schaw Statutes
Despite the disruptions caused by the Reformation, operative masonry
continued to be active in Scotland and gained in strength. William Schaw
drafted the Schaw Statutes in 1598. The king of Scotland, James VI, had
appointed William Schaw as Master of Work and General Warden of Masons in
1583. The Schaw Statutes incorporated everything legislated for in the
earlier Seals of Cause and the Trade Regulations and were extended in 1599
to provide an elaborate code of organisation and procedures within a
regional structure. A copy of the Schaw Statutes of 1598 is appended for
information. At that time in Britain generally the statutory wages of a
master were twelve pence per day or six shillings per week; a clerk of works
four shillings per week; a setter three shillings and eight pence per week;
and a mason three shillings per week in summer months and two shillings and
six pence per week in winter months. These wages will help in assessing the
severity of the penalties established by the Schaw Statutes. Another aspect
of particular interest is the item dealing with the erection and care of
scaffolding, which is the oldest official regulation on the subject. It is
the strictest rule in the entire code because it does not impose a fine, but
precludes any master in breach of the regulation from ever again having
charge of any work in his own right
6. The St Clair Charters
A note on the St Clair Charters is an appropriate conclusion to this brief
outline of operative masonry. With the permission of William Schaw and the
approval of five widely scattered lodges, the first St Clair Charter of 1601
authorised William St Clair the Laird of Roslin whose forebears had "for
ages been the patrons and protectors of the Mason Craft in Scotland", but
whose patronage had been allowed to fall into abeyance, to purchase from the
King "liberty, freedom and jurisdiction" over all Masons of the Burghs and
Sheriffdoms of Scotland. Seven lodges approved the second St Clair Charter
of 1628 for William St Clair, the son of the former, confirming and
elaborating the first, but Charles I of England, son of Jamers VI of
Scotland, ignored it and appointed Sir Anthony Alexander as Master of Work
and Warden General in 1629. A later William St Clair of Roslin was elected
first Grand Master Mason of the Grand Lodge of Scotland when it was
established in 1736.
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